Carolyn Gilberti
Course: English 232
Instructor: Dr. Natasha Whitton
Assignment: Argumentative
As the world of print culture in modern early England spiraled recklessly out of control, Alexander Pope worked diligently to expose those whom he believed were fueling the disgrace of the arts. Though, in a notable contradiction of his values, Pope, himself, was eliciting notoriety from the same commercial venues that he so vehemently crusaded against (Hess 76). Pope, one of the greatest literary figures of all time, was born in the same year as the Glorious Revolution (“Alexander Pope”). This was only one of the dramatic and historic events that would unfold during his lifetime. Provoked by an increase in the literate public of England, literature was evolving rapidly at this time. Although Pope and many others believed that the rise in literacy and print culture was leading to a demise of the arts, these developments were critical in the evolution of celebrated modern-day art, as the increased access to literature allowed a new variety of artist to emerge and created an outlet for scholarly writers to reach an expanding literate public.
To fully understand the nature of Pope’s assumption, it is necessary to examine the environment of literature in the eighteenth century. There was an intense amplification in the amount of literate people during this time. These masses were more interested in text that Pope would have categorized as crude, vulgar, and even immoral. This widespread increase in literacy created a new marketplace for publications. Rather than relying on elite sponsorship for financial support, writers could now promote and profit from their own writings (Hess 76–77). This created a general swing from an elite-dominated art society to a more middle-class, common art culture (36). Pope flourished by straddling the line between his elite admirers and the new public audience (76). The increase in the volume of literary works and the commercialism that followed made the designation between “high” and “low” art ever more significant (Greenblatt 870). “High” art would have included works that embodied the principles of classic literature such as the works of Homer and Virgil, whereas “low” art included the less intellectual works of the period.
One might claim that the rise in literacy of the middle-class brought about only degrading effects, such as the increase in cheap literature. “While historians disagree about how exactly the literacy rate changed in Britain through the early modern period, there is widespread consensus that by 1800 between 60 and 70 percent of adult men could read, in contrast to 25 percent in 1600” (865). While prior to this time writing was reserved only for those with the wherewithal to afford education, the boost of literacy allowed even the most common populace to read. With the possibility to market their own writings and command a prosperous living, new writers emerged in abundance. Because these more conventional readers and writers did not have the opportunity to study classical literature, Pope believed their works and opinions were substandard and prompted one of Pope’s proverbial warnings, “A little learning is a dang’rous thing” (Pope 2.215). However, the creation of this literary marketplace reverberated throughout England, creating much needed jobs and new opportunities for literate citizens. It also created a window of opportunity for women to take a greater stance in the literary world. Although the rise in literacy did create a marketplace for inferior writings, it also created a platform for new writers to emerge and exert their influence in modern writing.
With the proliferation of these bargain, basement-priced publications, many feared that great literature would eventually fade away entirely. Pope lamented that paper “became so cheap that anyone could write and publish, and the public remained at the mercy of dullards” (qtd. in Brackett 132). Alexander Pope sought to distinguish his works from the mass publications and position himself as an influential scholarly writer. In The Dunciad, Pope expresses his fears that great literary works might cease to exist in the wake of cheap alternatives in literature (“Alexander Pope”). In an effort to soothe these fears, the Augustans sought to set strict standards on literature and art. Pope, as well as the other Augustan poets, felt that the classics were the best example of fine literature, and that good poetry should be based on that form. Paradoxically, despite his flamboyant disapproval of print culture, Pope, seeking to augment his audience, began to publish cheaper texts in order to achieve greater proceeds (Hess 76). Seemingly, even as the Augustan poets tried arduously to maintain the standards of great literature, commercialism had already penetrated and corrupted it, or had it? The Romantic Period, which immediately followed the Augustan Era, contradicted Pope’s admiration of the classics. The Romanticists were more interested in expressing emotion rather than concentrating primarily on form. William Blake was one of the first artists to defy the high standards set by the Augustans. Although he bore the consequences through his lack of recognition in his time, his “illuminated printing” allowed him to reach out to the less learned readers and spark interest and understanding through his illustrations. Following in the footsteps of the Romanticists, the Victorian poets continued the emotional tradition of the Romantic Era, but it is the technique of twentieth century poets that returns to the scholarly intricacy reminiscent of the Augustans (Greenblatt 1902, 2300). The periods of English literature following Pope seem to show a pattern of abandoning the classics only to rediscover them with greater admiration than before. Accordingly, great literature has not ceased to exist; an abundance of distinguished modern day novels, films, songs, and art have been inspired by Pope’s beloved classics.
Many would agree with Pope that the arts have been tainted, and we will never again see the likes of great literary champions such as Homer or Virgil. But, was the rise of literacy and print culture doomed to destroy the arts? Alexander Pope did not have the luxury of hindsight that we have today. His fear that “high” art might one day disappear may have been warranted. As we look at commercialism in today’s society, intellectuals retain the same fears today. However, great artists emerge each day and are still inspired by beloved classics. It was Oscar Wilde who, in a statement that would have caused Pope much grief, declared, “The opinions of the old on matters of Art are, of course, of no value whatever” (qtd. in Greenblatt 2211). This may be somewhat of an overstatement; after all, everyone can learn a great deal from the classical masters. It is nearly impossible to make it through high school without having some involvement in a Shakespearian play, proving that classic literature is alive and well today. In Edith Hall’s new book, The Return of Ulysses, she studies how the classic works of Homer are still impacting modern literature (Rufle). According to Hall, themes such as shape-shifting, which originated with Homer’s Proteus and Circe, are still used in modern day film, art, and literature (Rufle). J.K. Rowling’s acclaimed Harry Potter series contains many characters with the ability to alter their shape and appearance. Hall also compares Dorothy’s return home, in The Wizard of Oz, to Odysseus’s homecoming after their long journeys (Rufle). Acclaimed twentieth-century author James Joyce created a modern day version of Homer’s Odyssey in his book, Ulysses (“James Joyce”). By looking at the parallels between the classics and modern literature, one can see that Pope’s fear of losing the classics was unfounded.
The rise in literacy and the subsequent print culture was a progressive step that aided and inspired future artists. Pope’s stern ideals of literature were indispensable in provoking a “Glorious Revolution” in the arts. The rebellion against these ideals inspired new means to express thoughts and emotions. Each period in art is a progression to the next period, whether through rebellion or imitation. Although education is a necessary factor in the equation, the human desire to express oneself through art should not be reserved for the elite. Many established figures in the arts have had humble beginnings, and their talent should not be underscored as overcoming obstacles is a critical part of creating art. As Samuel Johnson eloquently sum it up in their book Life of Pope,
Thus it will be found, in progress of learning, that in all nations the first writers are simple, and that every age improves in elegance. One refinement always makes way for another; and what was expedient to Virgil was necessary to Pope. (102)
Works Cited
“Alexander Pope.” Concise Dictionary of British Literary Biography. Vol. 2. 1992. Writers of the Restoration and Eighteenth Century, 1660 –1789. Gale Research. Web. 29 Sept. 2009.
Brackett, Virginia. The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry 17th and 18th Centuries. New York: Facts on File, 2008. Print.
Greenblatt, Stephen, and M H Abrams, eds. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 8th Edition ed. N.p.: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006. Print.
Hess, Scott. Authoring the Self: Self-representation, Authorship, and the Print Market in British Poetry from Pope through Wordsworth. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print.
“James Joyce.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 26 Nov. 2009
Johnson, Samuel. Life of Pope. Ed. Peter Peterson. New York: MacMillan & Co. Ltd, 1899. Print.
Pope, Alexander. “Essay on Criticism.” The Norton Anthology of English Literature. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 2006. 1124–1136. Print.
Rufle, Lisa. “Ulysses’ Effect on Literature.” Rev. of The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of Homer’s Odyssey, by Edith Hall. Literary Culture 7 Oct. 2008: n. pag. Web. 2 Oct. 2009.
Dr. Whitton’s Comments: This essay was completed for an elective course in British Literature at the sophomore level for non-English majors. When I received the first draft of Carolyn’s essay, I was sure that she was in the wrong place and belonged instead in the English program as a major. Her assignment was open-ended. She was given the list of authors and works for the semester and asked to find an independent topic that interested her. She found her way to the world of Alexander Pope and wrote a lovely reflection on literacy and the arts which she effectively tied to current discussions of popular literature.
